History of Multilateralism in Foreign Policy

Multilateralism is diplomatic term that refers to cooperation among several nations. President Barack Obama has made multilateralism a central element of U.S. foreign policy under his administration. Given the global nature of multilateralism, multilateral policies are diplomatically intensive but offer the potential for great payoffs. History of U.S. Multilateralism Multilateralism is largely a post-World War II element of U.S. foreign policy. Such cornerstone U.S. policies as the Monroe Doctrine (1823) and the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine (1903) were unilateral. That is, the United States issued the policies without the help, consent, or cooperation of other nations. American involvement in World War I, while it would seem to be a multilateral alliance with Great Britain and France, was in fact a unilateral venture. The U.S. declared war against Germany in 1917, almost three years after the war began in Europe; it cooperated with Great Britain and France simply because they had a common enemy; aside from combating the German spring offensive of 1918, it refused to follow the alliances old style of trench fighting; and, when the war ended, the U.S. negotiated a separate peace with Germany. When President Woodrow Wilson proposed a truly multilateral organization — The League of Nations — to prevent another such war, Americans refused to join. It smacked too much of the European alliance systems that had triggered World War I in the first place. The U.S. also stayed out of the World Court, a mediating organization with no real diplomatic weight. Only World War II pulled the U.S. toward multilateralism. It worked with Great Britain, the Free French, the Soviet Union, China and others in a real, cooperative alliance. At the end of the war, the U.S. became involved in a flurry of multilateral diplomatic, economic, and humanitarian activity. The U.S. joined the wars victors in the creation of: The World Bank and the International Monetary Fund, 1944The United Nations (UN), 1945The World Health Organization (WHO), 1948 The U.S. and its Western allies also created the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in 1949. While NATO still exists, it originated as a military alliance to throw back any Soviet incursion into western Europe. The U.S. followed that up with the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) and the Organization of American States (OAS). Although the OAS has major economic, humanitarian, and cultural aspects, both it and SEATO began as organizations through which the U.S. could prevent communism from infiltrating those regions. Uneasy Balance with Military Affairs SEATO and the OAS were technically multilateral groups. However, Americas political dominance of them tilted them toward unilateralism. Indeed, much of American Cold War policies — which revolved around containment of communism — tended in that direction. The United States entered the Korean War in the summer of 1950 with a United Nations mandate to push back a communist invasion of South Korea. Even so, the United States dominated the 930,000-man UN force: it supplied 302,000 men outright, and it outfitted, equipped, and trained the 590,000 South Koreans involved. Fifteen other countries provided the rest of the manpower. American involvement in Vietnam, coming without a UN mandate, was entirely unilateral. Both U.S. ventures in Iraq — the Persian Gulf War of 1991 and the Iraqi War that began in 2003 — had the multilateral backing of the UN and the involvement of coalition troops. However, the United States supplied the majority of troops and equipment during both wars. Regardless of label, both ventures have the appearance and feel of unilateralism. Risk Vs. Success Unilateralism, obviously, is easy — a country does what it wants. Bilateralism — policies enacted by two parties — are also relatively easy. Simple negotiations reveal what each party wants and does not want. They can quickly resolve differences and move ahead with policy. Multilateralism, however, is complicated. It must consider the diplomatic needs of many nations. Multilateralism is much like trying to arrive at a decision in a committee at work, or perhaps working on an assignment in a group in a college class. Inevitably arguments, divergent goals, and cliques can derail the process. But when the whole succeeds, the results can be amazing. The Open Government Partnership A proponent of multilateralism, President Obama has initiated two new U.S.-led multilateral initiatives. The first is the Open Government Partnership. The Open Government Partnership (OGP) seeks to secure transparent government functioning around the globe. Its declaration proclaims the OGP is committed to the principles enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the UN Convention against Corruption, and other applicable international instruments related to human rights and good governance. The OGP wants to: Increase accessibility to governmental information,Support non-discriminatory civic participation in governmentPromote professional integrity within governmentsUse technology to promote openness and accountability of governments. Eight nations now belong to the OGP. They are the United States, United Kingdom, South Africa, the Philippines, Norway, Mexico, Indonesia, and Brazil. Global Counterterrorism Forum The second of Obamas recent multilateral initiatives is the Global Counterterrorism Forum. The forum is essentially a place where states practicing counterterrorism can convene to share information and practices. Announcing the forum on September 22, 2011, U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton said, We need a dedicated global venue to regularly convene key counterterrorism policy makers and practitioners from around the world. We need a place where we can identify essential priorities, devise solutions, and chart a path to implementation of best practices. The forum has set four major goals in addition to sharing information. Those are: Discover how to develop justice systems rooted in the rule of law but effective against terrorism.Find cooperative ways to globally understand the radicalization of ideals, terrorist recruitment.Find ways to strengthen weaknesses — such as border security — that terrorists exploit.Ensure dynamic, strategic thinking and action about counterterrorism efforts.

essay on preliminary topic journey - 847 Words

A Journey can be a process of self-discovery, a movement of one’s location, a shift in direction leading to an understanding of the world and themselves. In order for a journey to take place it must have one key ingredient, that is, a traveller. Journey is happening all around us to deny it is to deny the very meaning of life itself, it is a necessary part of human nature and it’s how we act upon it that defies the impact felt and destination found. Through Michael Gow’s ‘Away’ and ‘The Blind Side’ produced by John Lee Hancock, applications of both dramatic and film techniques allow the responder to see the direct impacts a journey puts on the traveller, either physically, emotionally or spiritually. We see this through bald†¦show more content†¦This is a pivotal point in coral’s change in nature as we see Coral’s say the lines â€Å"I cannot walk. I am afraid† followed by â€Å"I am walking†; this dialogue demonstrates strong metaphor for Coral’s status and is axis of all change within Coral. Tom’s journey towards resolution of the mental trauma associated with the anxiety of his inevitable death requires a change in scene in order for him to understand and accept certain decease. At the beginning of â€Å"Away† Tom is well aware of his Fate and illustrates confusion and feeling of forfeit. In Scene 2 Act 4 Tom is desperate as he knows his pending death, he personally confronts Meg about having a â€Å"happy ending† before he dies. This is a focal point for Tom as it is the first time he openly expresses his grief about his diminishing time this scene also creates contrast in justifying Tom’s anxiousness as his death draws closer from the beginning of the play when he saw meg for much more than a sexual item, Tom begins to recognise what he has become and hastily changes subject and humours Meg. The play then closes with Gow creating Shakespearian allusion with Tom reading the lines from â€Å"King Lear†, â€Å"While we unburdened cra wl towards death†. Which is used symbolically with Tom’s state, the pillar inShow MoreRelatedI Am Writing At The Spring 2015 Semester Of Mrs. Miller s Engl 112 Dual Enrollment College1577 Words   |  7 PagesComposition II course at Brooke Point High School. Continuing our work from the first semester, this course emphasized research and argumentative writing for both the social sciences and the humanities, and a very challenging multi-genre project on a topic of our choice. Mrs. Miller encouraged us to strengthen our research skills through the use of annotated bibliographies developed from using readings from our textbook (Graff 2008), and online research databases available through the Germanna CommunityRead MoreAnalysis Of John Locke s The Of The Golden Era Essay1393 Words   |  6 Pagesdeaths of his father in 1661 and the death of his brother in 1663. It is in this same year that Locke published his first work Essays on the laws of nature. In 1668 Locke bec ame a member of the Royal society, it is here where he develops the â€Å"Historical Plain method† which focuses on how society does things and why. He also starts to develop two preliminary drafts of An Essay Concerning human Understanding. This is the point in which Locke’s life has a drastic turn towards triumph in the world ofRead MoreThe Revolution Of Nicaragua s Society960 Words   |  4 PagesHowever, their journey towards peace was only complicated by political stratagems by western powers for Cold War supremacy; in other words, Nicaraguans were not only at war with themselves but also with western expansion. The United States government’s obsession with halting the spread of communism and controlling Latin American countries propelled the revolution to new heights. Although his revolution has always had a unique place in Latin America history, this topic is still ratherRead MoreReflection Of My Group s Business Plan1853 Words   |  8 Pagesexperiences into a new potential learning experience (Wong et.al, 1995). The central theme of this report is to establish how my analytical thinking has changed and if how I plan on inculcating it in my future endeavours. It includes the experience of my journey from the formation of the group to the final presentation of the module. This report demonstrates how my approach towards a critical problem while making decisions has changed starting from idea generation and implementation all the way through conductingRead MoreHobbit Shake Guide6595 Words   |  27 Pages5.What two things does Gandalf give Thorin? 6.How did the dwarves lose their treasure and kingdom? Vocabulary audacious (29) rune (32) abreast (32) legendary (34) obstinately (34) prudent (34) remuneration (34) necromancer (37) Discussion and Essay Topics 1. What does the word hobbit make you think of? (The possibilities include rabbit, hobby, Babbit, habit and hob. The word is probably best seen as a blend of rabbit and hob, an obsolete British word meaning a rustic, peasant or sprite, elf.)Read MoreEuthanasia, a Sociological View3060 Words   |  13 PagesThe Euthanasia Debate, Related To The Thomas Theorem Topic: Euthanasia related to the Thomas Theorem Browser Used: Microsoft Explorer Search Engines Used: Google, Dogpile, MSN Search In The Unadjusted Girl W.I.Thomas wrote, Preliminary to any self-determined act of behavior there is always a stage of examination and deliberation which we may call the definition of the situation. And actually not only concrete acts are dependent on the definition of the situation, but gradually a whole life-policyRead MoreIs Shanghai A City For Shopping?2809 Words   |  12 Pagesthey helped players and audiences understand the local culture at the same time. Not only the TV programmes, some new methods also offer small tasks to let tourists learn more about a city, a country, such as geocaching, a treasure hunt. In this essay, I will first discuss how supernatural influences human beings, and then present some examples about this kind of stories in Shanghai. Secondly, I will talk about how the geocaching events help tourists explode a city, and summarize people’s (includeRead Moreen1320 graded assignments 11131313296 Words   |  54 PagesLibrary Exploration 9 Unit 2 Assignment 1: Change of Audience—Letter to Peer 10 Unit 2 Assignment 2: Topic, Angle, and Purpose 11 Unit 2 Assignment 3: Genre Essay—Memoir or Profile 12 Unit 3 Assignment 1: Revising the Memoir or Profile 13 Unit 3 Assignment 2: Reflection on Essay Writing 14 Unit 3 Exercise 1: Analyzing Paragraphs 15 Unit 3 Exercise 2: Guided Reading 16 Unit 4 Lab 1: Revised and Polished Essay—Memoir or Profile 21 Unit 4 Project Part 1: Team Roles and Selection of Materials for AnalysisRead MoreQuestions On English Language Learner5180 Words   |  21 Pagesthis concept is discussed in an article by Stewart, Araujo, Knezek, and Revelle (2015), ?Educators can tap into English Learners? ?funds of knowledge? (Gonza?lez, Moll, Amanti, 2005), their cultural skills, personal experiences, and immigration journeys, by using literature that mirrors students? lives (p. 13). This also is a way of making learning meaningful to students. If they are given material that directly relates to their lives, they are more likely to be interested in it. If they are moreRead MoreThe Role Of Religion On Roman Society3350 Words   |  14 Pagesferunt anni venientes commode secum, Multa recendentes adimiunt† – â€Å"The years as they come bring many agreeable things with them; as they go, they take many away† – Horace (65BC – 8BC) Abstract This essay investigates the role of religion and the importance of Roman society and politics. It will show the origin of Roman Religion, such as the pantheon, origin myths and the effect of foreign influence on Rome. This paper will also go into immense study

What Ethical Issues Does Ethnography Raise How Might We Deal with These Free Essays

string(142) " work was free from the problem of endangering participants; as it can harm individuals, but just not in the same way as biomedical research\." Ethics can be defined as a â€Å"set of moral principles and beliefs that govern a person’s behaviour or the conducting of an activity† with its main principle of doing ‘good’ and preventing harm (Oxford Dictionaries: 2011). However Orb et al (2002:93) states that Ethical issues can best be described or expressed as the â€Å"tension between the aims of research to make generalizations for the good of others, and the rights of participants to maintain privacy. Ethical issues and moral dilemmas are seen to arise in almost any type of research concerning human participants; in quantitative, biomedical, psychological, anthropological and sociological research. We will write a custom essay sample on What Ethical Issues Does Ethnography Raise How Might We Deal with These? or any similar topic only for you Order Now The infringement of some ethical issues which arise are considered to be more serious than others; however in order to minimise these ethical dilemmas, researchers must follow and obey a strict set of ethical guidelines in order to protect and minimise harm caused to participants or research subjects. Urie Bronfenbrenner suggests that there is no way of conducting research without breaching the principles of professional ethics, and that the only way of avoiding such dilemmas is to cease the conduct of any research (Fine 1993:267). Clearly there a variety of differing ethical dilemmas which occur in research, however those which arise in ethnographic research are in complete contrast to those ethical dilemmas raised in biomedical or quantitative research, where some might suggest that ethical problems are greater (Alder et al 1986). Punch (1994) goes further in suggesting that qualitative studies such as ethnography rarely, if ever, raise ethical issues (Orb 2000:93); however this statement is heavily debated. This essay aspires to discuss and analyse the ethical issues which arise in ethnography and discuss how valid and harmful these issues really are. The paper will also seek to discuss how researchers may overcome these ethical dilemmas and as to whether they are really effective means to dealing with the issue. However, firstly this essay will commence by giving a brief history of ethics, draw upon problems concerning the ethical review board guidelines and outline two contrasting dimensions of ethics. Today ethics are seen to be used as a tool to guide and direct research studies, however it seems that before the mid 1950’s research studies gave little regard to ethical guidelines or their research subjects causing a great deal of harm and distress to individuals and cultures (Akeroyd 008:133). An extreme example of this happened in America, from 1932 to 1972, many African American people where deliberately left untreated for syphilis as researchers wanted to find out what would happen if the illness was left (Orb 2002:93). Questions are today raised as to whether these studies should be disregarded as so many ethical issues and dilemmas were raised in pioneering research. However, today research studies are under strict regulation and scrutiny from ethical review boards, that have developed guidelines and controls which must be obeyed during any type of research. In the US, the Institutional review board (IRB) review all federally funded projects and require the researchers to follow a strict set of rules whilst conducting their studies, such as informing their participants of the objectives of research, obtaining consent from participants, protecting them from harm and so forth (Murphy and Dingwall 2007:340). However the ethical guidelines set by Institutional Review Boards have been criticized greatly by many social scientists claiming that the codes set have been designed around biological or quantitative models of research which are totally inapplicable nor relevant to social research and in particular ethnographic studies (Akeroyd 2008:147). Social scientists argue that the ethical guidelines set are not sensitive to ethnographic research and due to this may cause harm to individuals or groups studied; further they argue that the guidelines are liable to constrict research unnecessarily (Murphy and Dingwall 2007). In ethnographic research it would seem that ethical dilemmas are strongly correlated to the ontological and epistemological foundations of the research. However there seem to be two differing dimensions in explaining ethical issues, firstly is the concequentialist approaches and secondly there is the deontological approaches and in order to accomplish good quality research both approaches must be regarded. The consequentialist approaches are primarily concerned with the outcomes of the research and as too whether the participant is harmed during the study, and if they were, did the ends justified the means? The deontological approaches are on the other hand concerned with the participant’s rights, such as were they treated with respect, informed consent and did were their rights to privacy and autonomy attained (Murphy and Dingwall 2007:340). Many presume that these approaches are in competition however they are not because in actual fact these two contrasting approaches work in sync in order to protect participants from harm whilst also respecting the rights of participants. Beaucamp et al (1982) were one of the first to consider the consequentialist and deontological approaches and devised a list of ethical principles to be complied with when conducting research (Murphy and Dingwall 2007:340). In their list of principles BeauChamp et al noted Non-maleficience, Beneficence, self-determination and justice. They noted that Non-maleficience, requires the researcher to protect participant from harm and Beneficence suggests that the research must discover and obtain something of significance from the research for it to be ethical; these two approaches fall under the consequentialist approach. The deontological approaches outlined by Beaucamp et al are Self-determination, where the researcher must respect participant’s views and beliefs and Justice where the researcher is required to treat participants as an equal to themselves. Here firstly the consequentialist approaches to ethics will be discussed. Unlike in biomedical research, if harm occurs within ethnographic fieldwork it is likely to be indirect rather than direct. When biological scientists are testing new drugs or surgery they directly put the research participant under risk of harm and the harm will occur during the procedure; however in ethnography the harm which occurs is not so obvious, visible or direct. It would be foolish to think that ethnographic field work was free from the problem of endangering participants; as it can harm individuals, but just not in the same way as biomedical research. You read "What Ethical Issues Does Ethnography Raise How Might We Deal with These?" in category "Papers" In ethnographic field work if harm has taken place, then the participant will most probably not feel the effects until after the study has ended. In ethnography, if participants are ever harmed, they are usually harmed when the research studies they have participated in have been published or publicized (Murphy and Dingwall 2007:341). The reasons which lie behind this are due to the fact that once the work of an ethnographer has been published they have no control over how individuals read or interpret their work and how other people will use their work in the future (Akeroyd 2008). Through the publication of the researchers work research subjects can be put under a great deal of stress, apprehension and embarrassment and through this their confidence and self-worth can become damaged. Participants may become embarrassed about views they hold if they sense that the researcher disagrees with their outlook or if the researcher makes it apparent that they are surprised that they hold such views. Furthermore this embarrassment and anxiousness caused by research may be likely to increase if the media hype the publication of the study, even in cases where the participant’s identity remains anonymous (Murphy and Dingwall 2007:347). An example of a study where the research subject was embarrassed and harmed through the publication of research is ‘Whyte’s Street corner society study’. Richardson (1992:114) writes about ‘Docs’ reaction after reading what was said about him in the study, he suggests that Doc was embarrassed about what was said about him and his sense of pride and self respect was damaged. After the publication of the study ‘Doc’ pleaded with Whyte never to reveal to anyone who he was and to keep his identity anonymous. Boelen writes how ‘Docs’ sons believed that the Street Corner study ruined their father’s life (Richardson 1992:115). In response to this criticism some social scientists have suggested that ethnographers and their participants should work in partnership when producing reports (Murphy and Dingwall 2007). Others have suggested that too deal with such problem, all studies should present their participants with the right to reply. Some research subjects have sent letters to their local papers in response to publications they have taken part in. (Slack 2011) Another way in which ethnography is seen to cause harm is through offering ‘tools’ to those in power. Governments and army’s have been seen to use ethnographers in order to manipulate communities and cultures for both economic and political gains. These bodies of power have used ethnography to control those who are weak and powerless. Burgess (1985) suggests that â€Å"ethnographic studies increase knowledge of the adaptive behaviours that actors use of their feelings† (Murphy and Dingwall 2007:341), and we see examples of this happening today. The American department of defence have invested $40 million into a programme they consider to be a â€Å"Crucial new weapon† in their war against the Taliban in Afghanistan. They have hired ocial scientists and anthropologists so that they can grasp an understanding of tribal relations; and as this is seen to be working they are now looking to expand this ‘human terrain team’ (Rohde 2007). The head of the human terrain team see’s the work conducted as vital and defines it as a â€Å"scholar warriorâ⠂¬  and as â€Å"rare work of applied scholarship† (Times Higher education 2010). However although it would seem that many anthropologists are happy for their work to play a vital role in shaping military and foreign policy a great number are in firm opposition and are against the militarization of anthropology. Some believe this program is unethical, dangerous and ineffective. They believe it to be unethical as it breaches many ethical codes of practice such as no informed consent and can cause great harm to the research subjects (Network of concerned anthropologists). As previously noted, ethical guidelines state that research should only be authorized and carried out, and is only deemed as ethical if the study has some significant anticipated benefits. However in ethnography this is a problem. Predicting and anticipating the outcomes and potential benefits prior to research studies is proven to be extremely difficult. In biomedical studies these are much easier to predict and more obvious. However in favour of ethnographic research the risks are not as likely to be as damaging as those displayed in biomedical research (Arskey 2008). It would seem that many would consider that the emotional harm as a result of ethnographic research is far less damaging that that of physical harm such as the testing of new surgery seen in biomedical research; however ultimately the researcher has less control over the participant (Thorne 1980). Harm could also be said to occur in ethnography due to the difficulty in preserving anonymity, as it is clear that no ethnographer can guarantee this. This is due to the fact there is a possibility that field notes transcripts might be read (Murphy and Dingwall 2007). However a suggestion to counteract this problem would be that once researchers have finished with such documents they should destroy them at the earliest possible point they can so that no prying eyes see the information. Furthermore it would seem that there is only ever a small number of qualitative ethnographic research studies ever carried out, and when research is conducted in an overt manner participants will know that the study has taken place and therefore when the work is published will be able to easily identify themselves or their society in the published work. It could also be argued that the close emotional relationships which are formed during ethnographic studies are harmful to research subjects. Unlike in quantitative and biological research, qualitative ethnographic research offers the opportunity for participants and researchers to form close relationships during the period of the study (Richardson 1992). However, when the study finishes and is completed, usually more often than not, the relationship and friendship between the participant and the observer also end. This in turn is harming the participant as they are experiencing a loss. Again an example of this can be drawn from the Street Corner Society study conducted by Whyte. Many wonder how ‘Doc’ must have felt after Whyte left, after spending so much time with him. Did ‘Doc’ feel hurt? Because we know that one of the most important thing in ‘Docs’ life was friendships (Richardson 1992:116). Researchers must be careful of the cathartic effects of ethnographic research as the process of legitimise deviant behaviour can be damaging to society, as people may begin to think it is okay to act in such a way. Fine (1993) states that the research conducted on the extremely racist group of the Ku Klux Klan were guilty in doing this. He suggests that the researcher in this study â€Å"dehumanized their informants placing them outside our moral community in the guise of justice† (Fine 1993:272). The researcher adopted a sympathetic stance to the views of group, and this is clearly not always a positive characteristic, and can be considered to be unethical. In contrast to biological and statistical research, ethnographic work is based on observations and interpretations of what they see. Clearly the researchers own beliefs and values may influence what they write, and what they chose not to write about in their reports. There is much evidence supporting this notion. Fine (1993:227) suggests that readers who believe what they see in quotations marks are foolish because how do they know that is what actually was said or happened. He suggests that maybe what we sometimes see put in quotation marks are lies and misunderstood interpretations. This can be damaging to research subjects or communities under study as they may be portrayed as people they’re not e. g. racist. A programme on Channel 4 called â€Å"Love thy neighbour† is a prime example. In this reality TV show, the village people partake in choosing who gets to live in their village, and as a black family were voted out, these individuals are now portrayed as being racist. However in response to this criticism it could be said that this type of research is ‘conscious raising’, and may get individuals to think twice about their actions and behaviour (Hammersley and Atkinson 1995). The Deontological approaches and dimensions of looking at ethics usually take in to consideration the participant’s rights to privacy respect and self determination that may be infringed. The discussion about privacy and rights within research has been bought to the fore front after the antagonistic response from some previously studied communities, participants and native anthropologists (Murphy and Dingwall 2007:343). Some make the assertion that the rights of the participants are not always regarded just because they have signed a consent form (Akeroyd 2008). Others go further in saying that consent forms don’t really protect participants; they are devised primarily to protect the researcher in an event of law action, and in many cases after signing consent forms participants will still be unaware of what the research is about and what their rights are. It is suggested that these consent forms will just reinforce the unequal relationship between the research and their subjects (Homan 1980). Furthermore Price (1996) believes that â€Å"consent forms risk jeopardizing anonymity making people more identifiable† (Murphy and Dingwall 2008:343). Ultimately consent don’t guarantee the total protection of participants identities (Akeroyd 2008). However Bulmer (1980) is a great believer in informed consent, and believes it to be an essential part of any research. Bulmer (1980) is a critic of covert research and argues that this method of research can cause a great deal of harm to participants whilst also violating their rights and autonomy; he sees this type of research as a betrayal of trust. Edward Shills goes further and suggests that this invasion of privacy is a nuisance as it interferes with individual’s lives and cultures (Homan 1980:52). Furthermore critics argue that those who carry out covert research are reinforcing the idea that all social scientists are devious and untrustworthy. However although ethical review boards guidelines and some critics believe that covert research is unethical and breaching the rights of participants, Homan and other supporters of covert research believe that in some cases this research method is acceptable to use, for example a study on secretive communities. Several researchers have adopted the covert role and Laud Humphreys and his ‘Tea Room’ study is one of the most notable; however this study was subject to much scrutiny once it was published as it was seen to be breaching a tremendous amount of ethical guidelines. Questions are raised as to whether it is ethically right to deceive participants’ but also is it ethically right that research subjects don’t get to know anything about their researchers background as they know so much about theirs. Researchers rarely disclose personal information and if they do some lie. Diane Wolf (1996) claims that many ethnographers have lied about marital status, national identities or religious beliefs; and she is one of those, as during research she lied about her marital status to her research subjects (Denzin Lincoln 2003). Moral and ethical questions are raised asking whether it is right and proper for the researchers to have all the power in shaping, designing and undertaking studies; researchers are portrayed to be more competent due to this. It is queried whether this is really appropriate? (Denzin Lincoln 2003). However feminist argue that to evade such a problem the research subjects should be involved in the planning stages of research and have a say in the types of questions asked. However the practicality and sensibility of this idea is questioned, is this really an appropriate way of dealing with the problem? Many argue not. Some suggest that this would be impractical and some participants might not want to contribute. It has further been suggested that this is an obscene idea because at the end of the day it is the researcher who has the final word on what is going to be researched (Murphy and Dingwall 2007). Although it would seem the power status between the researcher and research subjects is less reinforced and not so clear within ethnographic research in comparison to other kinds of research; there are some concerns raised about the way that ethnographers can objectify, manipulate and take advantage of research subjects either during the period of the study or in published work. However some argue that the researcher controls are not in fact a breach of the research subjects’ independence and rights, and is not manipulative in anyway (Hammersley Atkinson 1995). On the other hand Fine (1993:284) proposes that it is sometimes the case where female ethnographers are objectified rather than the research subjects, due to the fact we live in a sexist world. Moreover Murphy and Dingwall (2007) argue that in some cases it would seem that the research subjects manipulate and exert power over the researchers conducting ethnographic studies. They propose that this happens through refuting the researcher the privilege of conducting research on themselves or their community or through manipulating what they study and not allowing the researcher to have full responsibility and say over the research. However, although it is questionable whether there is a problem of power imbalance between the research and their research subjects, feminists have suggested ways of dealing with this. They attempt to readdress power imbalances in relationships between the researched and researcher, by not enforcing the power the researcher has and balancing relationship statuses, making relationships more intimate and authentic (Murphy and Dingwall 2007). However, other critics have replied to this suggesting that the development of closer, sympathetic relationships are far more unethical and dangerous as manipulation on the researchers behalf becomes far easier as participants are more likely disclose thoughts and feeling to whom they feel close to. Furthermore participants may not wish for a relationship with an individual who is researching them (Akeroyd 2008) Once the researcher has published their research findings they usually gain scholarly recognition and financial benefits, whereas the studied groups or individuals gain nothing on this level. As Richardson (1992: 116) points out Whyte is recognised as the single author to the Street Corner Society and â€Å"received all the fame and fortune†, but questions are raised queering if the publication of the study would have been possible at all without ‘Docs’ help . The fortune made in the Street Corner study could have improved ‘Docs’ life a great deal, and a small percentage of the financial could have changed his life. However once the study ended ‘Docs’ fortune did not change, as he remained jobless for practically the rest of his life and living on the bread line. However it would seem that some researchers believe that through giving participants feedback and insight to the research moral dilemma of their financial and scholarly gains are resolved. On the other hand other ethnographic researchers may not feel that this enough and share the royalties from their published work (Slack 2011). Finally a further ethical dilemma concerning ethnographic research methods is that all the data and publications are based primarily on the interpretations made by the researcher, but it is queried whether the researcher has the right to do so (Hammersley Atkinson 1995). As Calvino (1998:257) states, communities or subjects can become ‘confrontational’ if they feel that the interpretations made of them are inaccurate and mistaken. Murphy and Dingwall (2007) claim that for research to be ethical they must produce accounts that convey the research subjects standpoints and views. However it is argued that ethnographers can and do sometimes take advantage of their empowered roles and construct their own versions of events and interpret data in ways they wish to display such groups. However in order to overcome this dilemma, it has been recommended that researchers should back their analysis and understanding with proof and verification that what was said and done did really happen (Akeroyd 2008). Therefore in conclusion, it is evident that ethnography can and does raise some ethical dilemmas causing harm and infringes the rights of many participants; however it is the duty and obligation of researchers to minimise these effects, even if they hold negative views and dislike the research subjects. Furthermore it is somewhat clear that ethnography can give valuable insights in to unexplored cultures and individuals, however on the negative side it is also seen as a damaging ‘tool’ used by those in power . It is obvious that today, unlike in the past, practically all research abides by ethical guidelines, set by ethical review boards and if they don’t researchers are held liable. Nevertheless, in the near future it is imperative that ethical guidelines should be amended so that they are specific to the issues surrounding ethnography. It is clear that this is the only way that ethnography will be almost fully ethical. How to cite What Ethical Issues Does Ethnography Raise How Might We Deal with These?, Papers

Heroes in the climatic scenes Essay Example For Students

Heroes in the climatic scenes Essay Mulan is Disneys thirty-sixth animated film and one of the first  created after the death of Walt Disney meaning roles of women in the  films could become stronger and more individual rather than the  stereotypical weak and seductive woman. This is the synopsis of Mulan  from the climax. During the climax the battle takes place, no one  believes Mulan that the Hun are coming to attack the emperor because  she has been found out as being a woman hey, youre a girl again  remember? She forms a plan and releases the emperor whilst  successfully killing Shan-Yu. The resolution occurs when Mulan  receives the crest from the emperor and sword of Shang. Closure  happens when she goes home to be honoured by her father and Shang  comes for tea, there is also a hint that they marry as it is asked,  Would you like to stay forever?  This is a deconstruction of the final scenes in both films according  to Voglers heros journey. Prince Phillips journey has a double  meaning. As the villain takes the hero down to the basement, it looks  like a cave, which symbolises the inner cave, which can also be seen  as losing his shield. Once the fairies rescue the prince he goes to  find his reward, the princess, but must fight the final battle in  order to get to her, which is when the female villain metamorphosiss  into a dragon but her magic juxtaposed with his traditional means  shows just how strong the male is represented as being. The scene representation in Mulan reflects the inner cave because when  the Hun comes out of the snow it appears as though they are emerging  from a cave. The final battle occurs at the emperors when Mulans army  battle with the Hun is being celebrated but Shan-Yu comes back and  loses the fight again Mulan, The irony is that the males dress up as  females in order to win. Mulans reward for her journey are the job  along side the emperor, the sword, medal honour and how the prince  traditionally gets the princess roles reverse and Mulan gets Shang. Prince Phillip is the typical Hero: he is strong, masculine, brave and  handsome His trying to fight Maleficent whilst chained against the  wall shows his determination. He wears the traditional Princes costume  with red to show his fearlessness which is not harmed by the thorns.  He is well spoken, as he is a member of royalty. His posture is always  bold to show his importance, and to emphasise his courage. He is sent  on a manly quest, especially as his reward is an attractive and  passive princess. During his quest, he takes up the role of a warrior,  which is the epitome of masculinity. He is more physical as he fights  without thinking, unlike Mulan.  Mulans distortion of gender means she is not the stereotypical hero.  Her active role as heroine is a different aspect to what the audience  is used to in a female Disney character: Mulan is not domestic and  passive. The male in the film is attracted to Mulans independence and  strength of mind. Her outfit is a male uniform for the majority of the  film, which gives the audience the message that people can be so  prejudice and sexist to the point that they will not listen to your  views if you are different. At the end of the film, Mulan changes into  a stereotypical female. We notice the change after she reunites with  the blossom hairpiece, the symbol of her lost femininity. She asks  Shang if he would like to stay for tea now that she is more womanly.  The main difference between the two heroes in Sleeping Beauty and  Mulan is the gender. Mulan is not the stereotypical hero fir she is  female and therefore discriminated against because most women are  considered weal and powerless. The themes of the two films are similar  in which Todorov, Propp and Voglers theory apply, but the plots of the  film are different. Films have referential codes, Disneys typical  characteristic e.g. pretty females and well-built men and the simple  camera does not confuse young children.

Freedom Essay Example

Freedom Essay Freedom is a privilege that many of us easily take for granted sometimes.   We subconsciously do it, because its so easy to forget that its not a right, but a privilege.   The freedom to live how we want, dress how we want, do what we want, and especially say what we want, all within reasonable limits, of course.   The reason why freedom is a privilege and not a right is because it could easily be taken away from us one day, for one reason or another, and also because everyone in this world does not have the ability to be as free as others do.   The media field is one where freedom is especially precious.   Throughout the world, many members of the press have the ability to cover most of what they want, with minimal boundaries preventing their duties.   However, in many countries around the world, members of the press find themselves under constraints that limit the things that they are allowed to say, due to threats and influences from political leaders in those countrie s.   In the countries of the former Soviet Union, there are many cases where the media constantly has the eye of the government on them. Until 1985, the countries of the Soviet Union were anything but free and open under the strict rule of the Communist-led government.   The Communist revolution had initially been one that was supposedly for the benefit of the people and their freedoms, but through the eras of Lenin, Stalin, and and on up to Chemenko, that must have been lost somewhere in the middle of trying to assume complete control of the republics many peoples.   That meant controlling what they knew and what they found out about the state of the country, the political goings-on, their history, and the people around them.   And, if that meant brainwashing, hiding facts, twisting truths, and all-out lying to the people, then that is what had to be, and what was, done, for a long, long time. We will write a custom essay sample on Freedom specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Freedom specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Freedom specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer That is, until Mikhail Gorbachev came along.   Gorbachev advocated a policy of freeness and openness, that put the country in a new, unfamiliar position.   It was one that benefited the people and gave them the opportunity to be not live under such a shroud of cautiousness, and it also gave the media a new freeness in reporting things that, at one time, would have either been almost off-limits to them, or grounds for serious trouble.   This openness, known as Glasnost, was one of the main factors in the eventual collapse of the Soviet Union.   The freedoms that the people and the media had been given were the catalyst that was needed to make a push for independence and change in many of the Soviet republics.   Once the itch for independence had began, it spread like wildfire, and there was little that the political leaders could do about it, because, due to all that the media were now allowed to say, a lot of the Communist transgressions of the past and present were reveale d, much to the shock of the mass of citizens. The Soviet Unions collapse became complete in the early 1990s, and in the mother country, changes were quickly made in the freedom of the media.   Under Boris Yeltsin, the freeness that had begun under Gorbachev continued.   Considering some of the strange things that occurred with Yeltsin, that may not have been a good thing for the leader.   But, any changes for the better in Russia have been gradually pushed out since Vladimir Putin became the countrys leader, succeeding Yeltsin at the end of 1999, who had named the former KGB agent his appointed successor.   Putin immediately restored the governments hold on the people, bringing it back to pre-Glasnost days.   In the first year of Putins tenure, media censorship was tightened, and several media organizations were brought under great governmental scrutiny, raided, shut down, and restructured so that the government could have the proper influence over what could be reported.   But, even beyond those already extreme meas ures, many journalists personally felt the wrath of the new regime   A countless number of media members were threatened, but in a number of cases, the threats manifested themselves into acts, and several Russian media members were kidnapped or brutally attacked, and there were a reported several murders of Russian journalists as a result of reporting on controversial issues.   The resumption of an earlier conflict with breakaway republic Chechnya fueled a number of these incidents, as Russian leaders were intent on painting the Chechens as the instigators of the conflict, and also hiding much of the bloodshed that occurred the during the conflict. Since then, Russian media has gradually lost more and more of its freedom, and as it stands today, is as free as it was before Gorbachev.   The treatment of the media in the country is not looked favorably upon by organizations that monitor press freedom.   The country consistently ranks in the lowest portion of the press freedom rankings issued by the organization Reporters Without Borders, and its dwindling support of freedom of the press has also received it a Not Free status from Freedom House.   The long-running conflict with Chechnya has had a great influence on the overall presence of the media, because it not only has created limitations with what the media can say about that conflict specifically, but about many other issues that might be viewed controversial or open up criticisms to the government.   In 2003, the nations last independent national television broadcaster, NTV, was shut down, and the moves to control the media havent stopped there.   Many who have be en responsible for being critical or supposedly slandering the government and officials have been either slapped with ludicrous fines or lawsuits, or sent to prison for their work, such as journalist German Galkin, who was sentenced to a year of prison in 2003 to silence him for speaking of indiscretions by regional government officials. When you think of the Soviet Union, Russia is the first country that comes to mind, but in many of the former Soviet republics, the media is under the same pressure, and in some of the countries, even a little more, than in the former mother country.   The political leader of the central Asian country of Turkmenistan, Sapamurat Niyazov, has as firm of a grip on the media as he does on the people of his country.   The dictator, who has been in power for more than three decades, and is the self-annointed President for Life and the Turkmenbashi, has the final say in what goes on the front pages   of the countrys major newspapers.   His control on the broadcast media is just as tight.   At the beginning of every news broadcast, broadcasters start with a pledge that their tongues will shrivel if they ever slander the country, the flag, or Niyazov, and thusly, all that is said is nothing but praise for the leader and the country.   Unfortunately, problems like poverty, AIDS, an d prostitution are covered up.   Niyazov also ensures hes never far from his peoples memories, as his picture is constantly shown on the bottom of the screen on the state television networks.   In the most recent Reporters Without Borders rankings, Turkmenistan is ranked 167th.   That distinction is made all the more dubious by the fact that the ranking lists 168 countries.   Turkmenistan is also ranked third in a list of the ten most censored countries in the world, compiled by the Committee to Protect Journalists. The situation is much the same in other former Soviet republics.   In Uzbekistan, journalists have to walk a fine, fine line, and if they dare, can release stories that are critical of leader Islam Karimov and the government, but theres a price to be paid for it.   Uzbekistan also has the most reported imprisoned journalists of any of the former Soviet republics, with six behind bars at the end of last year.   And those who are free are subjected to great political intimidation that limits what they can say.   And, any freedom that media did have was undone by the Andijan massacre in May 2005, when many anti-government protesters were murdered.   In the aftermath of the bloodshed, all foreign press were either kicked out of the country or forced to flee, because of the factual eyewitness reports they filed that were contradictory to what the government had put out. Belarus is another former Soviet republic that has the media on a short leash.   During the 2004 elections, more than two dozen journalists were imprisoned.   The leader who was conspicuously re-elected as a result of those elections, Aleksandr Lukashenko, goes to great lengths to ensure that a favorable shadow is cast upon him by the various media outlets.   Most of the main media outlets are owned by the government, so there is little room and even less tolerance for any independent news media.   Lukashenko has had many independent news outlets shut down, and he does a lot to prevent the release of most critical articles and stories, by going through print houses and the post offices.   So, for the few independent news agencies, there is little real independence.   And, if any journalists and reporters dare defy the wishes of Lukashenko, they could face punishment of up to five years in prison for their critical statements. To get a better picture of how difficult it is for media members to work in the former Soviet Union, those two aforementioned lists and also lists compiled by another media freedom organization, Freedom House, provide a lot of telling statistics.   Turkmenistan (#3), Uzbekistan (#8), and Belarus (#10) are all in that CPJ list of most censored countries, and all three are ranked lower than 150th in the Reporters Without Borders rankings.   The media Baltic states such as Lithuania and Latvia rate in the Free category as per Freedom Houses list of free, partly free, and not free nations, but those are exceptions.   Nine former Soviet republics, along with Russia, make up the Not Free category. Conditions are poor for the media in Turkmenistan and other former Soviet satellites, but there is only one country in the world that officially tops all of those countries, and that is North Korea.   North Korea has been very last in each of Reporters Without Borders press freedom rankings, which the organization has released since 2002.   If the North Korean leaders arent proud enough about those honors, then theres also the distinction of being at the top of the list in that CPJ ranking of the worlds ten most censored countries.   All news media outlets in the country are under strict government control.   The countrys citizens are unable to hear the truth about the poor state of the country and the transgressions of the corrupt government, including widespread famine and poverty that has much to do with the government more for itself, like build nuclear weapons, than it does for the sake of its peoples welfare.   Instead, news focuses on leader Kim Jong-il, building him up to be as much of an icon as his father, former and late leader, Kim Il-sung.   Few foreign media members are allowed into the country, and those who do are closely monitored by government-appointed watchers to make sure they dont say or see anything that they shouldnt.   Televisions and radios are permanently on state-run channels, and any print publications are subject to the same methods of approval as publications in Turkmenistan. The April 2004 explosion of a train in Ryongchon serves as a perfect example of how much of a hold that the government has over the media.   After the explosion, the official state news agency, the Korean Central News Agency, instead of talking about the casualties of the explosion, talked about how people reportedly ran into burning buildings to save portraits of the countrys leader before doing things like gathering up valuable possessions or ensuring the safety of what was most important, themselves and their loved ones.   Also, North Korea took two days to admit that an explosion had indeed occurred, and even so, when the accident was admitted, the scale of it was toned down.   North Koreas insufficient supply of information caused a delay in the delivery of proper aid to the victims, and it also went a long way to show just how little care the government has for its citizens. The North Korean government takes great measures to make sure that journalists say what they are supposed to say, and nothing more.   Steps are taken to revolutionize journalists, educating them on the necessity of getting every bit of information correct, on down to the proper spellings of officials names.   Many North Korean journalists have been sent to concentration camps, which should no longer exist, but are home to over 200,000 North Korean citizens.   One North Korean journalist was forced to work on a pig farm for six months for leaving off the last syllable of Kim Jong-ils name.   Journalists have to take part in courses that span long hours, for the purpose of learning everything about the leaders speeches, his achievements, and his party, to train their minds as to what theyre supposed to focus their reporting on.   Journalists, like the one who made a mistake on Kims name, face a series of punishments, from going through a period of interrogation and self-criti cism in front of a committee, and then being sent to the revolutionization camps for a period of time until they have their minds in order again.   In the past couple of decades, several journalists and important media members have either been removed, mysteriously disappeared, or fled the country as a result of their not keeping in line with the leaders wishes. For many of us who live in freer countries and regions, like the U.K., or the United States, or most of Europe, it would seem hard to believe how the inability to speak freely is as widespread as it is in this current day, but such is the case.   And, it might be even harder to believe that, in some of these countries, journalists often enough have to pay the ultimate price for giving out the truth and speaking their mind.   Just two months ago, in Russia, prominent, and highly controversial, journalist Anna Politkovskaya was shot and killed in her apartment complex.   Politkovskaya had been a harsh critic of the Russian government, and she had also been one of the leading journalists involved in reporting the events in Chechnya for the past several years.   She had been kidnapped and poisoned before, and had also often been the subject of death threats.   Murder is the ultimate and most extreme measure, and while it doesnt often happen, it happens more often than it should .   Politskovskaya is not the only Russian journalist who has fallen victim in the past several years.   Over a dozen Russian journalists have been savagely and unnecessarily murdered since the beginning of Putins tenure, and many, many more have been brutally attacked.   Violence towards journalists is not limited to Russia, either.   Just this year, Turkmen journalist Ogulsapar Muradova was tortured and killed while in prison.   Elsewhere, the abduction and heinous murder of Ukrainian journalist Heorhiy Gongadze in 2000 is still fresh in the minds of his colleagues throughout the world.   Gongadze was a well-known Internet reporter who ran a site that spoke out against supposed corruption by the government, and his killing was reportedly ordered by the then-president, Leonid Kuchima.   Statistically, Ukraine has been one of the worlds most dangerous places to be a journalist, with more than 20 journalists being murdered since Soviet independence was achieved. So, is the situation in these affected countries likely to change anytime within the near future? Organizations like Reporters Without Borders and CPJ work tirelessly to promote journalistic freedom throughout the world, and in countries where freedom of the press is limited, influential political leaders around the world and even international organizations like the United Nations often get involved in trying to press the issue to the leaders of those countries.   However, unless the leaders of these countries have a sudden change of heart, or the people who replace them dont follow their predecessors agendas, or by chance, theres a coup of the current governments, there would seem to be little hope for change, at least in the short term. Words speak far louder than actions do, because words can often incite people to act.   History shows that hitting the right chord with people and telling them the right things, may it be truth or lie, goes a long way in determining political success.   The leaders of those countries know that, as long as theyre telling people the right things, and keeping from them what they dont need to know, then their spot in office is solidified.   The case of the former Soviet Union shows just how big of an effect freeness and openness has on instigating a revolution of some sort.   There has, however, been progress, albeit mixed.   Ukraine has seen improvements in the governmental treatment of the media under new leader Viktor Yushchenko, as the number of media members who are harassed and physically attacked have greatly declined in the past couple of years, and meddling in what the media reports has also seen a decline.   Also, Yushchenko pushed to solve the Gongadze murder, and his killers were found in 2005.   Still though, that progress has not come without incident, because even one attack or murder of a journalist is too much, and those have not yet completely stopped in the country.   But, if Ukraine can make some slow progress in the right direction, progress can be made elsewhere.   Its all a matter of effort. Unfortunately, the prognosis for progression in North Korea seems extremely grim, barring some sort of miracle.   A couple of foreign media outlets have tried to make their way into the radio frequencies of the countrys citizens, with some success.   Those with radios must register them with the police, and have them preset to government frequencies.   But, those who want to get access to those foreign stations can purchase another radio and try to listen to those stations, such as FreeNK, which broadcasts an hour of government-critical programs each day.   However, those who dare to subvert the leader and listen face the risk of imprisonment, and those media outlets and any other, domestic or foreign, are looked down upon by the North Korean government as enemies.   Because of Kims lack of desire for his people to have any sort of actual freedom or rights, only those that are allowed by him, it does not seem likely that the censorship and control of the media will change, at least while Kim is alive and in power. It would be nice to think that, at some point, freedom of speech and press could not be limited to only a certain number of countries, but instead expanded to fit the entire world.   Organizations can do everything within their means for the sake of freedom, but in the end, its up to the leaders in those countries to decide what they want said, who they want to say it, and how they want it said, even if that means going against laws that allow freedom of the press, as in Russias case.  Ã‚   Fortunately, there are people like Anna Politkovskaya and so many other journalists throughout the world who stand up for the voices of freedom and for the masses of unrepresented and oppressed people.   Sadly, people like her end up paying with their lives sometimes, or their freedom.   The fact that people would sacrifice their lives for the sake of the truth and expression shows just how valuable freedom of speech is.   The efforts of those people should be praised, and their work exa lted, not halted.   And those who are martyrs for the truth and for freedom are one of many reasons why we should never, ever take our freedom for granted, no matter how easy it might be to do so. Freedom Essay Example Freedom Essay During the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries there were several different groups fighting for their freedom. These groups are the founding fathers of America, women, and black slaves. They each had written documents that officially gave them their freedom, but two of these groups needed a war to get them there. As you will see, they each took their own unique path to freedom. First of all, there are the Founding Fathers of America who gained their freedom by breaking with England who was in control over them. This was done through their Declaration of Independence and ultimately through the revolutionary war. In the Declaration of Independence, the founding fathers declared We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.Unfortunately, the Declaration of Independence did not extend human rights to all human beings. The first US Constitution preserved the institution of slavery and did not recognize the equal rights of women. We will write a custom essay sample on Freedom specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Freedom specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Freedom specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Secondly there are black slaves, whose freedom was gained through the white people in the north gaining them their freedom through the civil war.This was perhaps the most outstanding violations of human rights by the US. Slaves first arrived in America in 1619, but by the end of the century, the number of slaves had increased dramatically. Throughout this time, there were a number of prominent statesmen that opposed slavery, including George Washington, Benjamin Franklin, James Madison, and Alexander Hamilton. Many Christian churches opposed it as well. The Quakers actively protested against it, the Presbyterian Church made several formal declarations against it, and the Methodist Church opposed it as an evil institution. Abraham Lincoln also opposed slavery. freedom Essay Example freedom Paper Many times throughout history, specific events occur that explain why the existence of Native Americans are necessary for the Spanish and English colonists to survive. The Native Americans were like parents to the Spanish and English colonists. As a newborn baby is introduced to the new world, alike, the Spanish and English were introduced to a New World in which the Natives were already a part of. Their inhabitance of the land dates back to many thousands of years ago where they inhabited all regions of the Americas. When the Europeans arrived the Natives gave the colonists knowledge about the land. At times the Natives cared for them and supplied them with food and various other things. They also provided work for the colonists whether the Natives were slaves, servants or allied forces. Economically, the Natives were needed very much for anything the colonists would export to Europe. Throughout history, the colonists dependency on the Natives was clearly shown and the how the colon ists exploited the Natives in every possible way was also clear. What the colonists needed most from the Natives was their knowledge of the land. Because the Natives lived in the Americas for thousands of years, they are familiar with the area and they know how to work with it. For example, when Cortez landed on the Mexican shores on 1519, he used the Aztecs for their gold. When he found out where the Aztecs were getting their gold from, he simply destroyed them after he used them for their knowledge. Spanish colonists also had to learn a lot from the Pima, Pueblo and Papagos to be able to continue their farming in the very dry Southwest. Another tribes knowledge the colonists needed for survival was the Hohokam. The Hohokam built and maintained thefirst irrigation system in America, channeling river water many miles to desert fields of maize, beans, squash, tobacco, and cotton. The Hohokams knowledge of the

Analysis of Mid-Term Break by Seamus Heaney Essays

Analysis of Mid-Term Break by Seamus Heaney Essays Analysis of Mid-Term Break by Seamus Heaney Paper Analysis of Mid-Term Break by Seamus Heaney Paper Seamus Heaney, Mid-Term Break In Seamus Heaney’s poem â€Å"Mid-Term Break† one is misled by the title which normally would bring to mind parties, frivolous activities, and a much needed break from classes.The writer immediately extinguishes these thoughts as the college sick bay is mentioned (Heaney, 1).Heaney does not use rhyming or specific sentence structure but still manages to draw a strong reaction message from his readers.The reader is shocked by the last line as it reveals the death of a child, the emotionless reaction to this death, and the injustice of a young life gone forever. Although at first it seems as if the reader could perhaps be sick himself we quickly learn that the school bells sound to him as if they were â€Å"bells knelling† (2) which are often associated with a death toll or funeral procession.This immediately sets the tone of something far more tragic. The death of a young child has occurred, although it is not yet known the relationship between the reader and the deceased.There is no mention of grieving or emotion but the tone is very somber as the reader is confronted with various family members and friends in many states of grieving. As the eldest child the reader feels he is expected to behave or react a certain way.His family and friends are openly emotional and upset at the needless death of the young child.The reader puts on a brave face as he feels a duty to his family to remain strong.It is tragically implied by this phrase â€Å"away at school† (12) that if he had been home the accident would have never occurred.The tremendous pressure of unspoken criticism has to be overwhelming and yet another reason to dampen the reader’s emotions although the grief he felt must have been great.

GMO products Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

GMO products - Essay Example The engineering involves either adding a gene or genes to the plant’s genome or removal of the genes. (Freedman, 2009).  The methods used include gene guns, microinjection, electroparaton and agrobacterium. There are advanced methods that are more convenient which are the Crispr and Talen techniques. (Halford, 2006).   The gene guns technique uses radiations that are target the genes into a cell of a plant. The new DNA is combined to very small particles of tungsten or gold which are then shot into the target plant tissue or cell and all this is subjected to high pressures. The particles enter the cell membranes/cell wall and the DNA enters into the nucleus by detaching itself from the metal. This method has been used mainly in the production of maize and corn. The agrobacterium method uses the agrobacteria-organisms that are parasitic in nature and have the ability to transfer genes. They insert their genetic materials in a plant to create a convenient environment for themselves. This organisms are used in genetically engineering by removing their DNA and replacing it with the intended gene, allowing the transfer of the gene into plants. This method has been commonly used to produce tomatoes and potatoes. The electroparation is mainly used in plants whose cells do not contain a cell wall. Here, electric pulses cause the DNA to be put into the target plant cell through pores. Microinjection involves directly injecting a gene into the target plant’s DNA. The most common food alterations is concentrated mainly in cash crops that have high demand for example, soybean, corn and canola seeds. They are altered to make them resistant to diseases and to tolerate herbicides improving their quality. There are three types of modifications:- the transgenic method that involves the transfer of genes from one plant to another or from a bacterium to a plant. These plants are used to make or process proteins that help in making the plant tolerant and

Select an organization that has a web presence and analyze the Article

Select an organization that has a web presence and analyze the organization using elements listed below from Chapter 3 - Article Example It is a company based in US but it enjoys a large market share in all continents. The organization has branches in various countries to ensure that there is a continuous supply of products to their customers. The company has laid strategies that are responsible for the large market share that they have. Gillette enjoyed monopoly of the market until 1962 when other companies producing similar products emerged to compete for market. Despite of competition from other companies, Gillette has maintained a higher number of customers across the globe. Gillette has 70% of the market share with its competitors sharing a 30% share. The company started with men’s razor and blade products, after a proper market research, they started to manufacture women shaving products too. Men had complains when they shave with ordinary razors. They developed complications like rushes and pain after shaving. Due to this, they needed shaving products that are safe. Gillette produces a variety of shaving products that completely satisfies their customers’ shaving needs. Their razor products include Atra, Trac-II, and Sensor for women. They also produce Mach3 that has three thin blades designed to shave closely with less strokes and no irritation. Customers as well need products that are less expensive. To satisfy this need, Gillette has applied technology to produce shaving products that can be used more than once; hence, their products are economically friendly to customers. Gillette has several competitors that threaten their large market share. Key competitors include Schick and the Quattro. They produced the first four bladed razors to the market. They also produced shaving products for women for instance, Intuition for women invaded Gillette’s hold of market for women shaving products. Gillette has also faced serious competition from online competitors for example the dollar-shaving club. They try to win customers using their low shaving prices as compared to Gillette

Finance Principles Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Finance Principles - Essay Example It can be explained as, if one of the asset in the portfolio is giving negative return, then it would not have a significant impact on the overall return of the portfolio because the other assets might be performing well and thus making up for the asset which is not performing well. Diversification helps an investor to have consistent return on its portfolio over a period of time. An investor who is risk-averse in nature would always strive to have a completely diversified portfolio in order to minimize risks associated with it. Quantitative measure of portfolio is possible with the advent of several portfolio selection theories. Using those quantitative measures one can have the benefits of diversification to the maximum amount possible. The diversification strategy proposed by Markowitz is based on the covariance between the returns generated by the assets included in a portfolio. The diversification theory proposed by Markowitz is related to the risks associated with the portfolio as a whole and not the risk associated with any asset in isolation. Markowitz used variance as a measure of risk. Markowitz tried to develop a diversified portfolio by including those assets in the portfolio which are not perfectly positively correlated with each other, so that the variance in return of the portfolio is minimized without affecting much on the return of the portfolio.1 Mean – Variance Diversification Mean – Variance diversification portfolio theory utilizes marginal analysis as a means of achieving optimal level of diversified portfolio. It is based on the fact that diversification should be enhanced until and unless marginal cost is less than the marginal benefit. The advantage of this theory is the minimization of risk. The costs that are considered in this theory are holding costs and transaction costs. The standard deviation of the returns generated through the combination of assets is used as the risk measure in case of this theory of diversificat ion. Marginal benefits associated with diversification of portfolio get increased with decrease in correlation between asset returns. On diversification of the portfolio the expected value of standard deviation goes on decreasing. Optimal diversification depends on the expected correlations between each pair of assets in the portfolio, the buying costs of each of the assets, the holding costs of the assets and expected premium on equity used as asset in the portfolio.2 Risks associated with any portfolio can either be unsystematic risks or systematic risks. As discussed earlier risk gets reduced with diversification. However, diversification reduce risk only to a certain level, beyond which it is not possible to reduce risk because changes in the market conditions as a whole affects in variation of prices of all the assets included in the portfolio and it is not possible to reduce or eliminate this variability beyond a certain level. Hence it is necessary to divide risk into two par ts, namely systematic risk and unsystematic risk. The risk which represents that portion of the variability in asset caused by the market movements are known as systematic risk. This type of risk is unavoidable in nature and is sometimes termed as beta as mentioned in the Capital Asset Pricing

Code of Ethics and Safety in Engineering

Code of Ethics and Safety in Engineering Abstract With a safe product, we have no worries of using it because there is no risk that going to occur. But we must know that nothing in this world is perfect. Any accident can happen to any one of us out there. Engineer always involve themselves with design and creation of new things which demand for a good quality and safer product. Safe Design must comply with the applicable law, requires knowledge and capability, must attempt to foresee potential misuses of the product, must meet standard of accepted engineering practice and must verify every final design. After the process that being followed by the engineer themselves, so it is up to the user to use it in the right way. This project is expected to give awareness to the engineering ethic course student on the term risk, safety and accident in the real world. INTRODUCTION What can we say about Engineering Code of Ethics in this topic? To be simple, it is related to the engineers to produce products that are safe for the society. It is also important that they are the main role in preventing accidents of their invention. We must know that nothing can be 100% safe and perfect, but still engineers are required to make products as safe as reasonably possible.[1] Firstly, we must know that safety is about freedom from the occurrence or risk of injury, danger or loss. So, engineers have to follow the process or designing his product in order to make it safe as possible. Safe design is a process of hazard identification mainly at the design stage or controlling risk as early as possible to health and safety in the planning and design of products, systems or process. Through risk assessment, design option will be generated to eliminate Occupational Health Safety (OHS) hazards or to minimize OHS risks of injury to those who make the product and to those who used it.[3] In response to societal demands for safer products and workplaces, governments, businesses, engineers and others who are involved in innovation are requiring that safety be a fundamental principle in design. Design is a fundamental engineering activity. Engineer always involve in design, development and creation of new or improved products, process, systems and services. Hence, quality and safety in design should be fundamental in engineering concerns, not only to ensure that the code of engineering ethic is to be practiced but also to maintain a good reputation in engineering profession for better sense to develop products, processes and systems.[3] Safe design plays a big role in design objective, including practicability, cost and the functionality of the designed-product. Safe design is the process of successfully achieving a balance of these objectives. To ensure a total safety in a design, safe design needs an understanding of the each stage in the life of a designed product, starting with the initial conception to the end life of the product. Poor design can result in low productivity, higher maintenance, higher employment and workers compensation expenses and reduced asset life. These economic costs are in addition to human costs of injury, illness, disease and disability.[3] As we all know that accidents can always occur in anytime. It is usually happened on the user itself although the product that being used is already being design in term of safety and the usage too. It is case to case basis situation. It depends on whom to be blame. It may seem that engineers sometime bear no responsibility for any accident that happened. However, engineer must understand that the system or products that he is working on and to attempt to be creative in determining how things can be designed to avert as many mistakes by people using the technology as possible.[1] As we design something, we must also consider the manual and procedure for the use of the device or technology of the design. It is for the user itself. Engineers have to follow the design rules and in fact they have to pay the risk by designing something so that any accident can be averted. By generating the owners manual, maybe the user can use the device or the technology in the right way and it also can reduce the chances of getting any accident that can lead to death or injury. So engineers are born to help the people in the world by inventing the advance technology and designing it with the prospect of safety too. SAFE DESIGN CRITERIAS 1) Safe Design must comply with the applicable law All the design must meet their specifications and standards to ensure a good and safe design. Federal safety laws are different for each departments or industries. For example, International Maritime Organization (IMO) has an important part to play for adopting legislation for ships. IMOs safety legislation deals with the ship and passenger while The SOLAS (Safety of Life at Sea) do concern with passenger safety and with lifesaving equipment on passenger ships. While for electrical field, The National Electrical Safety Code (NESC) is a set of rules to safeguard people during the installation, operation, and maintenance of electric power lines. The NESC contains the basic provisions considered necessary for the safety of employees and the public. Although it is not intended as a design specification, its provisions establish minimum design requirements. PPL Electric Utilities Corp. (PPL) has developed design specifications and safety rules which meet or surpass all requirements specif ied by the NESC.[3] 2) Safe Design requires knowledge and capability In this case, engineers need to have and be able to demonstrate required knowledge about the design that he or she is about to build. They must have knowledge about the workplace hazards and any harmful effect because some of the design or project involves the prevention that may have potential to release hazardous material or energy. Such incidents will affect the environment such as toxic effects, fire or explosion and will drive to other consequences such as serious injuries, property damage and loss production. These are the basis possibilities that engineers must concern and implement ways to avoid any danger causes.[4] 3) Safe Design must attempt to foresee potential misuses of the product Engineers are professionally responsible for ensuring that their products or system are safe enough before they are established. They are legally bounded through law and regulations to ensure that their designs are safe from concept through disposal. To ensure a safe design, engineers must foresee the possibilities about the misuses of the products and implement ways to minimize the cautions of product misuses by the users. By adopting a safe design approach, it is possible to design-out health and safety hazards to create a design options that meet both clients need and our obligations as an engineer.[2] 4) Safe Design must meet standard of accepted engineering practice. Accepted engineering practice is a safety issues that involve fundamental ideas about how we view the world and what we believe is important and right. A designer has a responsibility to ensure that their conceptions do not put the others on risk. They cant just create the design by simply ignore insignificant risk even it consumes lots of cost. For example, it might be less important for a small house to install lightning protection but it is a must for such a large factories or tower to do so and to meet the standard of specification.[3] 5) Safe Design must verify every final design For good engineers, they must always find alternatives about how to improve their current products to improve safety effect besides implementing new ways of design. However, after designing, the products and finished devices must be tested rigorously to see whether the products are safe and meet the specifications needed. For fresh graduate engineers, they would be expected to work under the supervision and guidance of more experienced engineers, while they gain experiences. This is very important as fresh engineer will attempt to make more mistakes as they have lack of experiences.[2] DESIGNING FOR SAFETY Safety is generally interpreted as implying a real and significant impact on risk of death, injury or damage to property. In response to perceived risks many interventions may be proposed with engineering responses and regulation being two of the most common. Better safe than sorry by Bruce Erion, President of the National Broadcast Pilots Assn, a simple but crucial for designers to bear with. One version of the process for safety design, taken from the finding of Wilcox will be thoroughly elaborated. Some of the steps are including defining the problem and generate as well as analysing several solutions before implementing the design Consideration of safety should be an integral part of the design process at the various stages. Designers should assess the design as it progresses and if any significant hazard is identified the design should be altered to eliminate the hazard where reasonably practicable, or otherwise to reduce the risk where reasonably practicable [4]. As the design progresses from concept to detail, consideration of safety issues moves from general aspects to specific aspects. The most important contribution that a designer can probably make is at the concept and early design development stages of a project when project-wide and system hazards are being considered. Another important thing that an engineer needs to consider is to minimize the inherent danger in the process as could as possible. It is good if we can excluded any potential danger in our design rather that to cope with or otherwise avoided Hence, dangerous substances or reactions are replaced by less dangerous ones, and this is preferred to using the dangerous substances in an encapsulated process[3]. Trevor Kletz said that to eliminate the hazard completely or reduce its magnitude sufficiently to eliminate the need for elaborate safety systems and procedures. Furthermore, this hazard elimination or reduction would be accomplished by means that were inherent in the process and thus permanent and inseparable from it. Here we focus on the specific area of pertaining to engineering design. We believe that engineering design constitutes an interesting starting point for ethical issues in engineering, both for educational and research purposes [3]. The first step that designer need to consider is to define the needs and requirements and often involves determining the constraints. Consideration of safety should be an integral part of the design process at the various stages. Designers should assess the design as it progresses and if any significant hazard is identified the design should be altered to eliminate the hazard where reasonably practicable, or otherwise to reduce the risk. Before some design has been done, we must consider all the pros and cons before implementing every single one. We have to recognise if there any design trade off of the products. In order to build a stadium for example, Stadium A gives a more astounding structure but less safe compared to Stadium B that is very safe but the structural design is not that remarkable. Which one will we choose to build? Here, we need to generate several solutions in order to decide the best selection to choose but as a good designer, safety is always be the main priority Hence, after several solutions have been listed with their advantages as well as disadvantages, they need to be analysed. Safer products, processes and systems will result and that ultimately benefits business and society generally, now and in the long term, because it minimises injury and illness and provides for a better social and workplace environment. This step involves determining the consequences of each design solution and determining whether it solves the problem. The aspect of the design process is connected to, or brings about possible negative consequences, for people other than the designers involved; hence it is a must for engineer to test the solution whether they are safe enough before each of product has been released. Then after completing the solution testing, the design is ready to implement. In the nutshell, safety must come first in every design to avoid any unwanted accidents in the future and subsequent criminal or civil action against us RISK-BENEFIT ANALYSIS Risk-benefit analysis is the comparison of the risk of certain cases to its related benefits in the real world. Exposure to personal risk is recognized as a normal aspect of every daily routine life in human being. We accept a certain level of risk in our lives as necessary in order to obtain some particular benefits. In most of these risks one feels as though he or she have some sort of control over the real situation. For example, driving a car is a risk most people take every day. The controlling factor appears to be their perception of their individual ability to manage the risk-creating situation. However, analysing the risk of a situation is very dependent on the individual that doing the analysis. When individuals are exposed to involuntary risk or risk which they have no control, they tend to avoid the risk that they faced. Under these conditions, the individuals will favor to have the risk to be as much as one thousand times smaller than for the same situation under their pe rceived control.[7] Let us consider the adequacy of this way of dealing with uncertainty with the help of the simple conceptual model of risk management described by Figure 1. It characterises risk management as a non-monetized form of cost-benefit analysis. Figure1: simple conceptual model of risk management The model postulates that everyone has a propensity to take risks this propensity varies from one individual to another this propensity is influenced by the potential rewards of risk taking perceptions of risk are influenced by experience of accident losses ones own and  others individual risk taking decisions represent a balancing act in which perceptions of  risk are weighed against propensity to take risk accident losses are, by definition, a consequence of taking risks; the more risks an  individual takes, the greater, on average, will be both the rewards and losses he or  she incurs.[6] To make it simple, there are three kind of risk as shown in the figure 2. Figure 2: three kinds of risks Virtual risks are products of the imagination which work upon the imagination. The less conclusive the science relating to a particular risk, the more liberated are peoples imaginations. directly perceptible risks are managed instinctively and intuitively. Science illuminates many of the connections between behaviour and consequence, sometimes so successfully that previously invisible risks become directly perceptible. However estimates of such probabilities are usually of limited value to those seeking guidance about what to do in the face of uncertainty. There are at least as many problems attaching to the probability estimates as there are to the value estimates by which they are multiplied.[6] ACCIDENT Accident is an unexpected event that will be interrupt any completion of an activity, and that may be include injury or property damage. . Work accidents can occur due to unsuitable protective clothing and gear and insufficient training or non training. Injury can also be caused by careless co- workers and poor lighting. The employers should provide safe place of working, safe system of working and safe methods of working. When the accident was investigated, the important part is to find out what is the causes of the accident. It will use as a guideline in order to prevent similar accident in the future. The objectives of the investigation accident is actually to find out the facts that can guide to take the actions and not to find the fault. The investigation of the accident can be conducted by someone who have experienced in accident causation and have experienced about investigation technique. Besides that, the person must be have a knowledgeable about the working process or condi tion, the procedures and the person involve.[1] Most of the accident happen maybe because of some human error or else. For example, when doing the investigation, the accident is occur due to the worker carelessness. The accident happen still must be to investigate if there are not involve any injury or property damage because any hazards can be corrected for in the future apply. Accident can be considered into a several type which is procedural, engineered and the systemic. For procedural accident, it is the most common happen and it will give the someone to make a bad decision or choice and will not follow the established procedures. The procedural accident are quite well to understood and can be minimize with the appropriate way for example with the given training to the workers, more supervision, and must have laws or regulations .For engineered accident, it caused by flaw in the design. Failures in the choice of material, devices not operating properly, devices or parts not operating well under all circumstances. Engineered failure should be anticipated in the design stages and should be caught and corrected during testing. However, it not always to anticipate in every condition that will be encountered, and sometimes testing doesnt occur over the entire range of possible operating condition. Engineered accident cam be understood and alleviated as more k nowledge is gain through testing and actual experienced in the field.[1] For systemic accident, it is quite hard to understand and not easy to control it. They are characteristic of every complex technologies and the complex organizations that are required to operate them. For example in airline industry which have a very complicated system that involve many working people including baggage handler, machine, pilot, and so on. In designing some project, there are so difficult to detect any systemic accident since there are many small and seemingly insignificant factor that can be considered. As the designer and engineer, we suppose to understand the complexity of the system working and try to design something which the accident occur can be minimized. CASE STUDY CASE STUDY FOR SAFETY DESIGN Case Study 1 Safe Design: Employee received electric shock while trying to adjust damaged connector linking coin operated box to photocopier. 50mm connector jutting out at 90o on side of copier unsafe workplace-equipment layout obstructing access to electrical power outlet Preventive Actions Reopen case worksite preventive / brainstorming session with staff thru process of consultation, hazard ID, risk control measures. Re-layout photocopier and book shelf Case Study 2 Safe design: Nov 2004 Exhaust fumes from diesel engine at basement got into the air conditioning intakes on Floors 4 to 7, building was evacuated. When building was first built, there was no restriction to exhaust ventilation. With development, adjacent buildings were causing environmental restriction to existing exhaust ventilation systems, creating unsafe and uncomfortable workplace environment! Corrective action: Building owner to fix Preventive Actions: Development Act LG admin controls BCA building regulations controls Building Designers responsibility Case Study 3 Safe design: Jan 2005 Maintenance worker received electric shock after coming into contact with an LIVE evaporative cooling system isolation switch filled with water. Cause: Water droplets from the filter pad splashed onto the fan-motor power cable and gradually gained entry into the conduit and switch housing through gravity feed. Safe Design Consideration: Install a 90o elbow facing downwards at the cable entry point from the inside of unit to create the lowest dip point by design. Sealing the conduit entry point with silicone rubber or equivalent may not provide a permanent  barrier. CASE STUDY FOR ACCIDENT Case Study 4: Collapse of Stadium Terengganu Image of Terengganu Stadium Collapse In 2 JUNE 2009, the Stadium of Terengganu collapse after one year of being built. It was officially opened by the Yang di-Pertuan agong sultan Mizan Zainal Abidin. The roof of the stadium is named after him in Gong Badak, Kuala Terengganu collapsed in early morning of 2 June 2009 and causing damage to the few cars that was park in the vicinity. Fortunately no one was injured in this accident. The frame structure of the roof of the 50,000-seat stadium came crashing down around 7.30 am and none of the stadium staff were at the premises yet. 60 percent of the roof at the stadium that was built at a cost of RM270 million and opened on 10 May 2008, collapsed, including that above the royal box at the grand stand. Overall damage was estimated at RM35mil. Meanwhile, even after the debris from the 2,500-tonne roof has been cleared, the Terengganu government is  unable to say if the stadium is safe  as the impact of the collapse is not known. Some causes of the collapse of this new stadium were identified. It is maybe because of components used and work quality did not meet the specifications; design factor was not appropriate; roof was not constructed properly; quality control was not carried out at the project site; weak supervision during the construction process; lack of skilled workers; and shortage of experts and experienced consultants. A notice has been issued to the contractor to repair the 50,000-seat Sultan Mizan Zainal Abidin Stadium which is the biggest stadium in the East Coast but no response so far[9]. Case Study 5: The Crash of Valujet Flight 592 Image of Valujet Flight 592 In May 1996, Valujet Flight took off from Miami International Airport, heading for Atlanta. Theis Valujet Flight offered cheap fares to Florida and other popular destinations. It cost savings were achieved in part by hiring other companies which is Sabre Tech to perform many of the routine operations that keep an airline flying including the routine task of replacing oxygen generator canisters in some of its DC-9s. The canisters are located above the passenger seats and are used to provide oxygen to the passengers through masks should the cabin pressure somehow lost. The canisters contain a core of sodium chlorate, which is activated by a small explosive charge. This small explosion is initiated when the passenger pulls the oxygen mask toward herself. A chemical reaction within the canisters liberates oxygen, which the passenger breathes through the mask. During use, the surface temperature of the canister can be as high as 500F, which is normally not a problem, since the canister is well ventilated. To ensure that the canister will operate properly when needed, the oxygen generator canisters must be replaced periodically. Valujet maintenance rules made it clear that when the canisters are removed, a bright yellow safety cap must be installed on them to ensure that the explosive charge is not inadvertently set off. Unfortunately, Sabre Tech didnt follow this rule while performing this work. Instead, tape was applied where the caps should have been gone, and the canisters were placed in five cardboard boxes and left on a shelf in the hangar. However, two of the Sabre tech mechanics marked on the paperwork that the caps had been installed and signed off on the job. Within minutes after leaving the runway, the DC-9s electrical system started to fail and the cockpit and passengers cabin began filling with smoke. The pilots immediately called the Miami tower for permission to return and began to descend and turn back toward the airport. However, the situation becomes worsened because of fire started melting the control cables and the pilots become shrouded in smoke. The plane suddenly banked sharply and descended rapidly. The descent was so fast and causes the traffic control radar in Miami no longer able to register an altitude for the airplane. Amazingly, either through the efforts of the pilot or because the autopilot come back on, the plane becomes leveled off again. The airplane was now at only 1000 feet above the ground. The air traffic controllers in Miami radioed the pilots and attempted to send the aircraft to the closer airport at Opa Locka, Florida. Instead, the plane was rolled sharply to the right and facing nose down crashed into the Everglades. The two pilots, three flight attendants and 105 passengers on board were killed instantly in this accident. The subsequent investigation into this accident indicated that the fire was caused by the accidental firing of at least one of many chemical oxygen generators that were being carried in this plan to send back to Valujet headquarters in Atlanta. This chemical oxygen generator is the canister that had been removed from another Valujet airplane. The heat generated by this canister caused a fire in the cargo hold beneath the cockpit that ultimately brought this plane down. The investigation showed that this accident is not a flow in the airplanes design, but rather was attributed to a series of the oxygen canisters. These canisters were improperly secured and supposedly shouldnt have been on the airplane at all. One of the most important duties of an engineer is to ensure the safety of the people who will be affected by the products that he designs. As we have seen, all of the codes of ethics of the professional engineering societies stress the important of safety in the engineers duties [1][8]. CONCLUSION There are so many small insignificant factors that engineer doing that occur the accident. It may seem that the engineer has no responsibility and not alert about the law of safety and regulation. However, the engineer must understand and learn the complexity and the system that he is working on and also to be creative in determining how things can be design to avoid the accident happen again. Many of the risks can only be expressed by probabilities and no more educated guesses. Furthermore, there are synergistic effects between probabilities especially in a new and innovative design. Because of that, the engineer must design a product as safe as possible. Base on the designing for safety, the risk can minimize much more easierThe risk can minimize if the engineer spending more time to recheck the design cycle before sell it. It is because of to make sure that the product safe to use. Even though the price quite expensive, especially in the design cycle before the product has been built or is on the market, but the engineer must make sure that the product have a safety prevention and high quality. The prudent and ethical thing to do is to spend as much time and expense the design correctly so as to minimize future risk of injury and civil actions. The method to help analyze and to determine a project to proceed is risk benefit analysis. This method can summarize that the only ethical way is to implement risk-benefit by sharing the benefit between the engineer and society. As a conclusion, the product not surely 100% safe, but the engineer must design a product more effectively and follow the ethical law as a guideline.